Seminars in Roentgenology
Volume 44, Issue 2 , Pages 67-83 , April 2009

Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Techniques and Clinical Applications

  • Evrim Bengi Turkbey, MD

      Affiliations

    • Radiology and Imaging Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD
  • ,
  • David A. Dombroski, MD

      Affiliations

    • MRI Division, The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to David A. Dombroski, MD, MRI Room 110 (Nelson Basement), The Johns Hopkins Hospital, 600 N Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21287

References 

  1. Nael K, Fenchel M, Saleh R, et al. Imaging: New advances and role of 3 T. Magn Reson Imaging Clin North Am. 2007;15:291–300
  2. Edelman RR. Contrast-enhanced MR imaging of the heart: Overview of the literature. Radiology. 2004;232:653–668
  3. Finn JP, Nael K, Deshpande V, et al. Imaging: State of the technology. Radiology. 2006;241:338–354
  4. Boxerman JL, Mosher TJ, McVeigh ER, et al. Advanced MR imaging techniques for evaluation of the heart and great vessels. Radiographics. 1998;18:543–564
  5. Simonetti OP, Finn JP, White RD, et al. “Black blood” T2-weighted inversion-recovery MR imaging of the heart. Radiology. 1996;199:49–57
  6. Bellenger NG, Burgess MI, Ray SG, et al. Comparison of left ventricular ejection fraction and volumes in heart failure by echocardiography, radionuclide ventriculography and cardiovascular magnetic resonance; are they interchangeable?. Eur Heart J. 2000;21:1387–1396
  7. Grothues F, Smith GC, Moon JCC, et al. Comparison of interstudy reproducibility of cardiovascular magnetic resonance with two-dimensional echocardiography in normal subjects and in patients with heart failure or left ventricular hypertrophy. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90:29–34
  8. Ichikawa Y, Sakuma H, Kitagawa K, et al. Evaluation of left ventricular volumes and ejection fraction using fast steady-state cine MR imaging: Comparison with left ventricular angiography. J Cardiovascular Magn Reson. 2003;5:333–342
  9. Semelka RC, Tomei E, Wagner S, et al. Normal left ventricular dimensions and function: Interstudy reproducibility of measurements with cine MR imaging. Radiology. 1990;174:763–768
  10. Barkhausen J, Ruehm SG, Goyen M, et al. MR evaluation of ventricular function: True fast imaging with steady-state precession versus fast low-angle shot cine MR imaging: Feasibility study. Radiology. 2001;219:264–269
  11. Carr JC, Simonetti O, Bundy J, et al. Cine MR angiography of the heart with segmented true fast imaging with steady-state precession. Radiology. 2001;219:828–834
  12. Bottini PB, Carr AA, Prisant LM, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging compared to echocardiography to assess left ventricular mass in the hypertensive patient. Am J Hypertens. 1995;8:221–228
  13. Bellenger NG, Davies LC, Francis JM, et al. Reduction in sample size for studies of remodeling in heart failure by the use of cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson. 2000;2:271–278
  14. Bellenger NG, Rajappan K, Rahman SL, et al. Effects of carvedilol on left ventricular remodelling in chronic stable heart failure: A cardiovascular magnetic resonance study. Heart. 2004;90:760–764
  15. Rosen BD, Edvardsen T, Lai S, et al. Left ventricular concentric remodeling is associated with decreased global and regional systolic function: The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2005;112:984–991
  16. Zerhouni EA, Parish DM, Rogers WJ, et al. Human heart: Tagging with MR imaging—A method for noninvasive assessment of myocardial motion. Radiology. 1988;169:59–63
  17. Ibrahim E-SH, Stuber M, Schär M, et al. Improved myocardial tagging contrast in cine balanced SSFP images. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2006;24:1159–1167
  18. Herzka DA, Guttman MA, McVeigh ER. Myocardial tagging with SSFP. Magn Reson Med. 2003;49:329–340
  19. Pan L, Prince JL, Lima JAC, et al. Fast tracking of cardiac motion using 3D-HARP. IEEE Trans Bio-Med Eng. 2005;52:1425–1435
  20. Di Carli MF, Maddahi J, Rokhsar S, et al. Long-term survival of patients with coronary artery disease and left ventricular dysfunction: Implications for the role of myocardial viability assessment in management decisions. J Thorac Cardiovascular Surg. 1998;116:997–1004
  21. Senior R, Kaul S, Lahiri A. Myocardial viability on echocardiography predicts long-term survival after revascularization in patients with ischemic congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;33:1848–1854
  22. Bax JJ, Poldermans D, Elhendy A, et al. Improvement of left ventricular ejection fraction, heart failure symptoms and prognosis after revascularization in patients with chronic coronary artery disease and viable myocardium detected by dobutamine stress echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;34:163–169
  23. Bax JJ, Schinkel AF, Boersma E, et al. Extensive left ventricular remodeling does not allow viable myocardium to improve in left ventricular ejection fraction after revascularization and is associated with worse long-term prognosis. Circulation. 2004;110(suppl 1):II18–II22
  24. Schinkel AFL, Poldermans D, Rizzello V, et al. Why do patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy and a substantial amount of viable myocardium not always recover in function after revascularization?. J Thorac Cardiovascular Surg. 2004;127:385–390
  25. Ogawa M, Doi K, Yamada Y, et al. Surgical ventricular restoration based on evaluation of myocardial viability with delayed-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Gen Thoracic Cardiovasc Surg. 2007;55:149–157discussion, 157
  26. Baer FM, Theissen P, Schneider CA, et al. Dobutamine magnetic resonance imaging predicts contractile recovery of chronically dysfunctional myocardium after successful revascularization. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;31:1040–1048
  27. Gutberlet M, Frohlich M, Mehl S, et al. Myocardial viability assessment in patients with highly impaired left ventricular function: Comparison of delayed enhancement, dobutamine stress MRI, end-diastolic wall thickness, and TI201-SPECT with functional recovery after revascularization. Eur Radiol. 2005;15:872–880
  28. Baer FM, Voth E, Schneider CA, et al. Comparison of low-dose dobutamine-gradient-echo magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography with [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose in patients with chronic coronary artery disease (A functional and morphological approach to the detection of residual myocardial viability). Circulation. 1995;91:1006–1015
  29. van Rugge FP, van der Wall EE, Spanjersberg SJ, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging during dobutamine stress for detection and localization of coronary artery disease (Quantitative wall motion analysis using a modification of the centerline method). Circulation. 1994;90:127–138
  30. Wahl A, Paetsch I, Roethemeyer S, et al. High-dose dobutamine-atropine stress cardiovascular MR imaging after coronary revascularization in patients with wall motion abnormalities at rest. Radiology. 2004;233:210–216
  31. Paetsch I, Jahnke C, Wahl A, et al. Comparison of dobutamine stress magnetic resonance, adenosine stress magnetic resonance, and adenosine stress magnetic resonance perfusion. Circulation. 2004;110:835–842
  32. Jahnke C, Nagel E, Gebker R, et al. Prognostic value of cardiac magnetic resonance stress tests: Adenosine stress perfusion and dobutamine stress wall motion imaging. Circulation. 2007;115:1769–1776
  33. Kuijpers D, Ho KY, van Dijkman PR, et al. Dobutamine cardiovascular magnetic resonance for the detection of myocardial ischemia with the use of myocardial tagging. Circulation. 2003;107:1592–1597
  34. Kuijpers D, Janssen CH, van Dijkman PR, et al. Dobutamine stress MRI (Part I. Safety and feasibility of dobutamine cardiovascular magnetic resonance in patients suspected of myocardial ischemia). Eur Radiol. 2004;14:1823–1828
  35. Wahl A, Paetsch I, Gollesch A, et al. Safety and feasibility of high-dose dobutamine-atropine stress cardiovascular magnetic resonance for diagnosis of myocardial ischaemia: Experience in 1000 consecutive cases. Eur Heart J. 2004;25:1230–1236
  36. Gerber BL, Garot J, Bluemke DA, et al. Accuracy of contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in predicting improvement of regional myocardial function in patients after acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2002;106:1083–1089
  37. Kim RJ, Wu E, Rafael A, et al. The use of contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging to identify reversible myocardial dysfunction. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:1445–1453
  38. Weinsaft JW, Klem I, Judd RM. MRI for the assessment of myocardial viability (Magn Reson Imaging). Clin North Am. 2007;15:505–525
  39. Vogel-Claussen J, Rochitte CE, Wu KC, et al. Delayed enhancement MR imaging: Utility in myocardial assessment. Radiographics. 2006;26:795–810
  40. Kim RJ, Shah DJ, Judd RM. How we perform delayed enhancement imaging. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson. 2003;5:505–514
  41. Huber AM, Schoenberg SO, Hayes C, et al. Phase-sensitive inversion-recovery MR imaging in the detection of myocardial infarction. Radiology. 2005;237:854–860
  42. Kellman P, Arai AE, McVeigh ER, et al. Phase-sensitive inversion recovery for detecting myocardial infarction using gadolinium-delayed hyperenhancement. Magn Reson Med. 2002;47:372–383
  43. Amado LC, Gerber BL, Gupta SN, et al. Accurate and objective infarct sizing by contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in a canine myocardial infarction model. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44:2383–2389
  44. Kim RJ, Fieno DS, Parrish TB, et al. Relationship of MRI delayed contrast enhancement to irreversible injury, infarct age, and contractile function. Circulation. 1999;100:1992–2002
  45. Klein C, Nekolla SG, Bengel FM, et al. Assessment of myocardial viability with contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging: Comparison with positron emission tomography. Circulation. 2002;105:162–167
  46. Kühl HP, Beek AM, van der Weerdt AP, et al. Myocardial viability in chronic ischemic heart disease: Comparison of contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging with (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:1341–1348
  47. Lee VS, Resnick D, Tiu SS, et al. MR imaging evaluation of myocardial viability in the setting of equivocal SPECT results with (99m)Tc sestamibi. Radiology. 2004;230:191–197
  48. Wagner A, Mahrholdt H, Holly TA, et al. Contrast-enhanced MRI and routine single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) perfusion imaging for detection of subendocardial myocardial infarcts: An imaging study. Lancet. 2003;361:374–379
  49. Beek AM, Kuhl HP, Bondarenko O, et al. Delayed contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging for the prediction of regional functional improvement after acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42:895–901
  50. Choi KM, Kim RJ, Gubernikoff G, et al. Transmural extent of acute myocardial infarction predicts long-term improvement in contractile function. Circulation. 2001;104:1101–1107
  51. Ichikawa Y, Sakuma H, Suzawa N, et al. Late gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in acute and chronic myocardial infarction (Improved prediction of regional myocardial contraction in the chronic state by measuring thickness of nonenhanced myocardium). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:901–909
  52. Bondarenko O, Beek AM, Nijveldt R, et al. Functional outcome after revascularization in patients with chronic ischemic heart disease: A quantitative late gadolinium enhancement CMR study evaluating transmural scar extent, wall thickness and periprocedural necrosis. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson. 2007;9:815–821
  53. Barbier CE, Bjerner T, Johansson L, et al. Myocardial scars more frequent than expected: Magnetic resonance imaging detects potential risk group. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48:765–771
  54. Kwong RY, Chan AK, Brown KA, et al. Impact of unrecognized myocardial scar detected by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging on event-free survival in patients presenting with signs or symptoms of coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2006;113:2733–2743
  55. Ebeling Barbier C, Bjerner T, Hansen T, et al. Clinically unrecognized myocardial infarction detected at MR imaging may not be associated with atherosclerosis. Radiology. 2007;245:103–110
  56. Atkinson DJ, Burstein D, Edelman RR. First-pass cardiac perfusion: Evaluation with ultrafast MR imaging. Radiology. 1990;174:757–762
  57. Ding S, Wolff SD, Epstein FH. Improved coverage in dynamic contrast-enhanced cardiac MRI using interleaved gradient-echo EPI. Magn Reson Med. 1998;39:514–519
  58. Schreiber WG, Schmitt M, Kalden P, et al. Dynamic contrast-enhanced myocardial perfusion imaging using saturation-prepared TrueFISP. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2002;16:641–652
  59. Judd RM, Lugo-Olivieri CH, Arai M, et al. Physiological basis of myocardial contrast enhancement in fast magnetic resonance images of 2-day-old reperfused canine infarcts. Circulation. 1995;92:1902–1910
  60. Ambrosio G, Weisman HF, Mannisi JA, et al. Progressive impairment of regional myocardial perfusion after initial restoration of postischemic blood flow. Circulation. 1989;80:1846–1861
  61. Motoyama S, Kondo T, Anno H, et al. Relationship between thrombolytic therapy and perfusion defect detected by Gd-DTPA-enhanced fast magnetic resonance imaging in acute myocardial infarction. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson. 2001;3:237–245
  62. Wu KC, Zerhouni EA, Judd RM, et al. Prognostic significance of microvascular obstruction by magnetic resonance imaging in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1998;97:765–772
  63. Gerber BL, Rochitte CE, Melin JA, et al. Microvascular obstruction and left ventricular remodeling early after acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2000;101:2734–2741
  64. Hunold P, Schlosser T, Barkhausen J. Magnetic resonance cardiac perfusion imaging—A clinical perspective. Eur Radiol. 2006;16:1779–1788
  65. Wilke NM, Jerosch-Herold M, Zenovich A, et al. Magnetic resonance first-pass myocardial perfusion imaging: Clinical validation and future applications. J Magn Reson Imaging. 1999;10:676–685
  66. Giang TH, Nanz D, Coulden R, et al. Detection of coronary artery disease by magnetic resonance myocardial perfusion imaging with various contrast medium doses: First European multi-centre experience. Eur Heart J. 2004;25:1657–1665
  67. Kitagawa K, Sakuma H, Nagata M, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of stress myocardial perfusion MRI and late gadolinium-enhanced MRI for detecting flow-limiting coronary artery disease: A multicenter study. Eur Radiol. 2008;18:2808–2816
  68. Wolff SD, Schwitter J, Coulden R, et al. Myocardial first-pass perfusion magnetic resonance imaging: A multicenter dose-ranging study. Circulation. 2004;110:732–737
  69. Cury RC, Cattani CA, Gabure LA, et al. Diagnostic performance of stress perfusion and delayed-enhancement MR imaging in patients with coronary artery disease. Radiology. 2006;240:39–45
  70. Klem I, Heitner JF, Shah DJ, et al. Improved detection of coronary artery disease by stress perfusion cardiovascular magnetic resonance with the use of delayed enhancement infarction imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47:1630–1638
  71. Bluemke DA, Achenbach S, Budoff M, et al. Noninvasive coronary artery imaging: Magnetic resonance angiography and multidetector computed tomography angiography: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association committee on cardiovascular imaging and intervention of the council on cardiovascular radiology and intervention, and the councils on clinical cardiology and cardiovascular disease in the young. Circulation. 2008;118:586–606
  72. Edelman RR, Manning WJ, Burstein D, et al. Coronary arteries: Breath-hold MR angiography. Radiology. 1991;181:641–643
  73. Li D, Paschal CB, Haacke EM, et al. Coronary arteries: Three-dimensional MR imaging with fat saturation and magnetization transfer contrast. Radiology. 1993;187:401–406
  74. Brittain JH, Hu BS, Wright GA, et al. Coronary angiography with magnetization-prepared T2 contrast. Magn Reson Med. 1995;33:689–696
  75. Botnar RM, Stuber M, Danias PG, et al. Improved coronary artery definition with T2-weighted, free-breathing, three-dimensional coronary MRA. Circulation. 1999;99:3139–3148
  76. Sakuma H, Ichikawa Y, Suzawa N, et al. Assessment of coronary arteries with total study time of less than 30 minutes by using whole-heart coronary MR angiography. Radiology. 2005;237:316–321
  77. Kim WY, Danias PG, Stuber M, et al. Coronary magnetic resonance angiography for the detection of coronary stenoses. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1863–1869
  78. Spuentrup E, Buecker A, Stuber M, et al. Navigator-gated coronary magnetic resonance angiography using steady-state-free-precession: Comparison to standard T2-prepared gradient-echo and spiral imaging. Invest Radiol. 2003;38:263–268
  79. Jahnke C, Paetsch I, Nehrke K, et al. Rapid and complete coronary arterial tree visualization with magnetic resonance imaging: Feasibility and diagnostic performance. Eur Heart J. 2005;26:2313–2319
  80. Sakuma H, Ichikawa Y, Chino S, et al. Detection of coronary artery stenosis with whole-heart coronary magnetic resonance angiography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48:1946–1950
  81. So NM, Lam WW, Li D, et al. Magnetic resonance angiography of coronary arteries with a 3-dimensional magnetization-prepared true fast imaging with steady-state precession sequence compared with conventional coronary angiography. Am Heart J. 2005;150:530–535
  82. Jahnke C, Paetsch I, Schnackenburg B, et al. Coronary MR angiography with steady-state free precession: Individually adapted breath-hold technique versus free-breathing technique. Radiology. 2004;232:669–676
  83. So NM, Lam WW, Li D, et al. Magnetic resonance coronary angiography with 3D TrueFISP: Breath-hold versus respiratory gated imaging. Br J Radiol. 2005;78:116–121
  84. Regenfus M, Ropers D, Achenbach S, et al. Comparison of contrast-enhanced breath-hold and free-breathing respiratory-gated imaging in three-dimensional magnetic resonance coronary angiography. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90:725–730
  85. Zagrosek A, Noeske R, Abdel-Aty H, et al. MR coronary angiography using 3D-SSFP with and without contrast application. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson. 2005;7:809–814
  86. Kim SY, Seo JB, Do K-H, et al. Coronary artery anomalies: Classification and ECG-gated multi-detector row CT findings with angiographic correlation. Radiographics. 2006;26:317–333discussion:333
  87. Post JC, van Rossum AC, Bronzwaer JG, et al. Magnetic resonance angiography of anomalous coronary arteries (A new gold standard for delineating the proximal course?). Circulation. 1995;92:3163–3171
  88. Bunce NH, Lorenz CH, Keegan J, et al. Coronary artery anomalies: Assessment with free-breathing three-dimensional coronary MR angiography. Radiology. 2003;227:201–208
  89. Newburger JW, Takahashi M, Gerber MA, et al. Diagnosis, treatment, and long-term management of Kawasaki disease: A statement for health professionals from the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis and Kawasaki Disease, Council on cardiovascular disease in the Young, American Heart Association. Circulation. 2004;110:2747–2771
  90. Greil GF, Stuber M, Botnar RM, et al. Coronary magnetic resonance angiography in adolescents and young adults with Kawasaki disease. Circulation. 2002;105:908–911
  91. Aurigemma GP, Reichek N, Axel L, et al. Noninvasive determination of coronary artery bypass graft patency by cine magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation. 1989;80:1595–1602
  92. Bunce NH, Lorenz CH, John AS, et al. Coronary artery bypass graft patency: Assessment with true at imaging with steady-state precession versus gadolinium-enhanced MR angiography. Radiology. 2003;227:440–446
  93. Engelmann MG, Knez A, von Smekal A, et al. Non-invasive coronary bypass graft imaging after multivessel revascularisation. Int J Cardiol. 2000;76:65–74
  94. Jenkins JP, Love HG, Foster CJ, et al. Detection of coronary artery bypass graft patency as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Radiol. 1988;61:2–4
  95. Vrachliotis TG, Bis KG, Aliabadi D, et al. Contrast-enhanced breath-hold MR angiography for evaluating patency of coronary artery bypass grafts. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1997;168:1073–1080
  96. White RD, Caputo GR, Mark AS, et al. Coronary artery bypass graft patency: Noninvasive evaluation with MR imaging. Radiology. 1987;164:681–686
  97. Fernandez-Ortiz A, Badimon JJ, Falk E, et al. Characterization of the relative thrombogenicity of atherosclerotic plaque components: Implications for consequences of plaque rupture. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;23:1562–1569
  98. Naghavi M, Libby P, Falk E, et al. From vulnerable plaque to vulnerable patient: A call for new definitions and risk assessment strategies: Part I. Circulation. 2003;108:1664–1672
  99. Yuan C, Beach KW, Smith LH, et al. Measurement of atherosclerotic carotid plaque size in vivo using high resolution magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation. 1998;98:2666–2671
  100. Kim WY, Stuber M, Bornert P, et al. Three-dimensional black-blood cardiac magnetic resonance coronary vessel wall imaging detects positive arterial remodeling in patients with nonsignificant coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2002;106:296–299
  101. Burke AP, Kolodgie FD, Farb A, et al. Morphological predictors of arterial remodeling in coronary atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2002;105:297–303
  102. Wagner S, Auffermann W, Buser P, et al. Diagnostic accuracy and estimation of the severity of valvular regurgitation from the signal void on cine magnetic resonance images. Am Heart J. 1989;118:760–767
  103. Krombach GA, Kuhl H, Bucker A, et al. Cine MR imaging of heart valve dysfunction with segmented true fast imaging with steady state free precession. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2004;19:59–67
  104. Suzuki J, Caputo GR, Kondo C, et al. Imaging of valvular heart disease: Display and imaging parameters affect the size of the signal void caused by valvular regurgitation. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1990;155:723–727
  105. Vogel-Claussen J, Pannu H, Spevak PJ, et al. Cardiac valve assessment with MR imaging and 64-section multi-detector row CT. Radiographics. 2006;26:1769–1784
  106. Rickers C, Wilke NM, Jerosch-Herold M, et al. Utility of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2005;112:855–861
  107. Spirito P, Bellone P, Harris KM, et al. Magnitude of left ventricular hypertrophy and risk of sudden death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1778–1785
  108. Dong SJ, MacGregor JH, Crawley AP, et al. Left ventricular wall thickness and regional systolic function in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (A three-dimensional tagged magnetic resonance imaging study). Circulation. 1994;90:1200–1209
  109. Kramer CM, Reichek N, Ferrari VA, et al. Regional heterogeneity of function in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 1994;90:186–194
  110. Sipola P, Lauerma K, Husso-Saastamoinen M, et al. First-pass MR imaging in the assessment of perfusion impairment in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and the Asp175Asn mutation of the alpha-tropomyosin gene. Radiology. 2003;226:129–137
  111. Moon JC, Reed E, Sheppard MN, et al. The histologic basis of late gadolinium enhancement cardiovascular magnetic resonance in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43:2260–2264
  112. Varnava AM, Elliott PM, Mahon N, et al. Relation between myocyte disarray and outcome in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 2001;88:275–279
  113. van Dockum WG, ten Cate FJ, ten Berg JM, et al. Myocardial infarction after percutaneous transluminal septal myocardial ablation in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy: Evaluation by contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43:27–34
  114. McKenna WJ, Thiene G, Nava A, et al. Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy (Task Force of the Working Group Myocardial and Pericardial Disease of the European Society of Cardiology and of the Scientific Council on cardiomyopathies of the International Society and Federation of Cardiology). Br Heart J. 1994;71:215–218
  115. Bluemke DA, Krupinski EA, Ovitt T, et al. MR imaging of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy: Morphologic findings and interobserver reliability. Cardiology. 2003;99:153–162
  116. Tandri H, Macedo R, Calkins H, et al. Role of magnetic resonance imaging in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia: Insights from the North American arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (ARVD/C) study. Am Heart J. 2008;155:147–153
  117. Tandri H, Castillo E, Ferrari VA, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia: Sensitivity, specificity, and observer variability of fat detection versus functional analysis of the right ventricle. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48:2277–2284
  118. Tandri H, Saranathan M, Rodriguez ER, et al. Noninvasive detection of myocardial fibrosis in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy using delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:98–103
  119. Globits S, Kreiner G, Frank H, et al. Significance of morphological abnormalities detected by MRI in patients undergoing successful ablation of right ventricular outflow tract tachycardia. Circulation. 1997;96:2633–2640
  120. Tandri H, Bluemke DA, Ferrari VA, et al. Findings on magnetic resonance imaging of idiopathic right ventricular outflow tachycardia. Am J Cardiol. 2004;94:1441–1445
  121. Strohm O, Schulz-Menger J, Pilz B, et al. Measurement of left ventricular dimensions and function in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2001;13:367–371
  122. MacGowan GA, Shapiro EP, Azhari H, et al. Noninvasive measurement of shortening in the fiber and cross-fiber directions in the normal human left ventricle and in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 1997;96:535–541
  123. Calore C, Cacciavillani L, Boffa GM, et al. Contrast-enhanced cardiovascular magnetic resonance in primary and ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown, Md). 2007;8:821–829
  124. McCrohon JA, Moon JC, Prasad SK, et al. Differentiation of heart failure related to dilated cardiomyopathy and coronary artery disease using gadolinium-enhanced cardiovascular magnetic resonance. Circulation. 2003;108:54–59
  125. Assomull RG, Prasad SK, Lyne J, et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance, fibrosis, and prognosis in dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48:1977–1985
  126. Nazarian S, Bluemke DA, Lardo AC, et al. Magnetic resonance assessment of the substrate for inducible ventricular tachycardia in nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2005;112:2821–2825
  127. Masui T, Finck S, Higgins CB. Constrictive pericarditis and restrictive cardiomyopathy: Evaluation with MR imaging. Radiology. 1992;182:369–373
  128. Francone M, Dymarkowski S, Kalantzi M, et al. Assessment of ventricular coupling with real-time cine MRI and its value to differentiate constrictive pericarditis from restrictive cardiomyopathy. Eur Radiol. 2006;16:944–951
  129. Fattori R, Rocchi G, Celletti F, et al. Contribution of magnetic resonance imaging in the differential diagnosis of cardiac amyloidosis and symmetric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am Heart J. 1998;136:824–830
  130. Maceira AM, Joshi J, Prasad SK, et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in cardiac amyloidosis. Circulation. 2005;111:186–193
  131. Vignaux O, Dhote R, Duboc D, et al. Detection of myocardial involvement in patients with sarcoidosis applying T2-weighted, contrast-enhanced, and cine magnetic resonance imaging: Initial results of a prospective study. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 2002;26:762–767
  132. Smedema JP, Snoep G, van Kroonenburgh MP, et al. The additional value of gadolinium-enhanced MRI to standard assessment for cardiac involvement in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. Chest. 2005;128:1629–1637
  133. Watanabe A, Hara Y, Hamada M, et al. A case of effusive-constructive pericarditis: An efficacy of GD-DTPA enhanced magnetic resonance imaging to detect a pericardial thickening. Magn Reson Imaging. 1998;16:347–350
  134. Araoz PA, Eklund HE, Welch TJ, et al. CT and MR imaging of primary cardiac malignancies. Radiographics. 1999;19:1421–1434
  135. Sparrow PJ, Kurian JB, Jones TR, et al. MR imaging of cardiac tumors. Radiographics. 2005;25:1255–1276
  136. Syed IS, Feng D, Harris SR, et al. MR imaging of cardiac masses. Magn Reson Imaging Clin North Am. 2008;16:137–164
  137. Thiele H, Nagel E, Paetsch I, et al. Functional cardiac MR imaging with steady-state free precession (SSFP) significantly improves endocardial border delineation without contrast agents. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2001;14:362–367
  138. Semelka RC, Shoenut JP, Wilson ME, et al. Cardiac masses: Signal intensity features on spin-echo, gradient-echo, gadolinium-enhanced spin-echo, and TurboFLASH images. J Magn Reson Imaging. 1992;2:415–420
  139. Srichai MB, Junor C, Rodriguez LL, et al. Clinical, imaging, and pathological characteristics of left ventricular thrombus: A comparison of contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging, transthoracic echocardiography, and transesophageal echocardiography with surgical or pathological validation. Am Heart J. 2006;152:75–84
  140. Barkhausen J, Hunold P, Eggebrecht H, et al. Detection and characterization of intracardiac thrombi on MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2002;179:1539–1544
  141. Paydarfar D, Krieger D, Dib N, et al. In vivo magnetic resonance imaging and surgical histopathology of intracardiac masses: Distinct features of subacute thrombi. Cardiology. 2001;95:40–47
  142. Weinsaft JW, Kim HW, Shah DJ, et al. Detection of left ventricular thrombus by delayed-enhancement cardiovascular magnetic resonance prevalence and markers in patients with systolic dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52:148–157
  143. Kellenberger CJ, Yoo SJ, Buchel ER. Cardiovascular MR imaging in neonates and infants with congenital heart disease. Radiographics. 2007;27:5–18
  144. Wald RM, Powell AJ. Simple congenital heart lesions. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson. 2006;8:619–631
  145. Oshinski JN, Parks WJ, Markou CP, et al. Improved measurement of pressure gradients in aortic coarctation by magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;28:1818–1826

PII: S0037-198X(08)00087-4

doi: 10.1053/j.ro.2008.12.001

Seminars in Roentgenology
Volume 44, Issue 2 , Pages 67-83 , April 2009