Seminars in Roentgenology
Volume 41, Issue 2 , Pages 121-138 , April 2006

Radiologic Diagnosis and Staging of Renal and Bladder Cancer

  • Chaan S. Ng, MD

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to Chaan S. Ng, MD, Department of Radiology, Box 57, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Houston, TX 77030-4009.

References 

  1. Jemal A , Thomas A , Murray T , et al.   Cancer statistics, 2002 . CA Cancer J Clin . 2002;52(1):23–47
  2. American Cancer Society (2003). Cancer Facts and Figures 2003, pp. 1-52. Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society. Available at: http://www.cancer.org/docroot/STT/content/STT 1x Cancer Facts Figures, 2003.asp
  3. Chow WH , Devesa SS , Warren JL , et al.   Rising incidence of renal cell cancer in the United States . JAMA . 1999;281(17):1628–1631
  4. Figlin RA , Thompson JA , Bukowski RM , et al.   Multicenter, randomized, phase III trial of CD8(+) tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in combination with recombinant interleukin-2 in metastatic renal cell carcinoma . J Clin Oncol . 1999;17(8):2521–2529
  5. Pretorius ES , Wickstrom ML , Siegelman ES . MR imaging of renal neoplasms . Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am . 2000;8(4):813–836
  6. Russo P . Renal cell carcinoma (presentation, staging, and surgical treatment) . Semin Oncol . 2000;27(2):160–176
  7. Godley P , Kim SW . Renal cell carcinoma . Curr Opin Oncol . 2002;14(3):280–285
  8. Mostofi FK , Davis CJ . Histological typing of kidney tumors . In: Berlin, New York: Springer; 1998;p. 3–36
  9. Shanks JH . Pathology of renal cell carcinoma (recent developments) . Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) . 1999;11(4):263–268
  10. Sobin LH , Wittekind C . In: International Union Against Cancer. TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours . (ed 5). New York, NY: Wiley-Liss; 1997;p. 180–182
  11. Reznek RH . Renal cancer . In:  Husband JES ,  Reznek RH editor. Imaging in Oncology . Oxford: Isis Medical Media; 1998;p. 191–214
  12. Bell ET . A classification of renal tumours with observation on the frequency of various types . J Urol . 1938;39:238–243
  13. Hafez KS , Fergany AF , Novick AC . Nephron sparing surgery for localized renal cell carcinoma (impact of tumor size on patient survival, tumor recurrence and TNM staging) . J Urol . 1999;162(6):1930–1933
  14. Kinouchi T , Saiki S , Meguro N , et al.   Impact of tumor size on the clinical outcomes of patients with Robson State I renal cell carcinoma . Cancer . 1999;85(3):689–695
  15. Gofrit ON , Shapiro A , Kovalski N . Renal cell carcinoma (evaluation of the 1997 TNM system and recommendations for follow-up after surgery) . Eur Urol . 2001;39(6):669–674
  16. Pantuck AJ , Zisman A , Belldegrun AS . The changing natural history of renal cell carcinoma . J Urol . 2001;166(5):1611–1623
  17. Delahunt B , Eble JN . Renal tumours (the new order) . NZ Med J . 1998;111(1072):307–309
  18. Tsui KH , Shvarts O , Smith RB . Prognostic indicators for renal cell carcinoma (a multivariate analysis of 643 patients using the revised 1997 TNM staging criteria) . J Urol . 2000;163(4):1090–1095
  19. Leibovici D , Lindner A , Sella A , et al.   Novel concepts in the staging of renal cell carcinoma . Curr Urol Rep . 2003;4(1):41–48
  20. Jayson M , Sanders H . Increased incidence of serendipitously discovered renal cell carcinoma . Urology . 1998;51(2):203–205
  21. Luciani LG , Cestari R , Tallarigo C . Incidental renal cell carcinoma-age and stage characterization and clinical implications (study of 1092 patients (1982-1997)) . Urology . 2000;56(1):58–62
  22. Bosniak MA . The use of the Bosniak classification system for renal cysts and cystic tumors . J Urol . 1997;157(5):1852–1853
  23. Birnbaum BA , Jacobs JE , Ramchandani P . Multiphasic renal CT (comparison of renal mass enhancement during the corticomedullary and nephrographic phases) . Radiology . 1996;200(3):753–758
  24. Yuh BI , Cohan RH . Different phases of renal enhancement (role in detecting and characterizing renal masses during helical CT) . AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1999;173(3):747–755
  25. Johnson CD , Dunnick NR , Cohan RH , et al.   Renal adenocarcinoma (CT staging of 100 tumors) . AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1987;148:59–63
  26. Hricak H , Thoeni RF , Carroll PR , et al.   Detection and staging of renal neoplasms (a reassessment of MR imaging) . Radiology . 1988;166(3):643–649
  27. Roubidoux MA , Dunnick NR , Sostman HD , et al.   Renal carcinoma (detection of venous extension with gradient-echo MR imaging) . Radiology . 1992;182(1):269–272
  28. Welch TJ , LeRoy AJ . Helical and electron beam CT scanning in the evaluation of renal vein involvement in patients with renal cell carcinoma . J Comput Assist Tomogr . 1997;21(3):467–471
  29. Sheth S , Scatarige JC , Horton KM , et al.   Current concepts in the diagnosis and management of renal cell carcinoma (role of multidetector CT and three-dimensional CT) . Radiographics . 2001;21:S237–S254
  30. Urban BA , Ratner LE , Fishman EK . Three-dimensional volume-rendered CT angiography of the renal arteries and veins (normal anatomy, variants, and clinical applications) . Radiographics . 2001;21(2):373–386
  31. Frohmuller HG , Grups JW , Heller V . Comparative value of ultrasonography, computerized tomography, angiography and excretory urography in the staging of renal cell carcinoma . J Urol . 1987;138(3):482–484
  32. Habboub HK , Abu-Yousef MM , Williams RD , et al.   Accuracy of color Doppler sonography in assessing venous thrombus extension in renal cell carcinoma . AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1997;168(1):267–271
  33. Bos SD , Mensink HJ . Can duplex Doppler ultrasound replace computerized tomography in staging patients with renal cell carcinoma? . Scand J Urol Nephrol . 1998;32(2):87–91
  34. Fein AB , Lee JK , Balfe DM , et al.   Diagnosis and staging of renal cell carcinoma (a comparison of MR imaging and CT) . AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1987;148(4):749–753
  35. Studer UE , Scherz S , Scheidegger J , et al.   Enlargement of regional lymph nodes in renal cell carcinoma is often not due to metastases . J Urol . 1990;144(2 Pt. 1):243–245
  36. Ng CS , Loyer EM , Iyer RB , et al.   Metastases to the pancreas from renal cell carcinoma (findings on three-phase contrast-enhanced helical CT) . AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1999;172(6):1555–1559
  37. Walter C , Kruessell M , Gindele A , et al.   Imaging of renal lesions (evaluation of fast MRI and helical CT) . Br J Radiol . 2003;76(910):696–703
  38. Montravers F , Grahek D , Kerrou K , et al.   Evaluation of FDG uptake by renal malignancies (primary tumor or metastases) using a coincidence detection gamma camera . J Nucl Med . 2000;41(1):78–84
  39. Hofer C , Kubler H , Hartung R , et al.   Diagnosis and monitoring of urological tumors using positron emission tomography . Eur Urol . 2001;40(5):481–487
  40. Shvarts O , Han KR , Seltzer M , et al.   Positron emission tomography in urologic oncology . Cancer Control . 2002;9(4):335–342
  41. Hain SF , Maisey MN . Positron emission tomography for urological tumours . BJU Int . 2003;92(2):159–164
  42. Ramdave S , Thomas GW , Berlangieri SU , et al.   Clinical role of F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography for detection and management of renal cell carcinoma . J Urol . 2001;166(3):825–830
  43. Pashos CL , Botteman MF , Laskin BL , et al.   Bladder cancer (epidemiology, diagnosis, and management) . Cancer Pract . 2002;10(6):311–322
  44. Mostofi FK . In: Histological typing of urinary bladder tumours . Berlin, New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1999;p. 3–27
  45. Bostwick DG , Ramnani D , Cheng L . Diagnosis and grading of bladder cancer and associated lesions . Urol Clin North Am . 1999;26(3):493–507
  46. Husband JE . Bladder cancer . In:  Husband JES ,  Reznek RH editor. Imaging in Oncology . Oxford: Isis Medical Media; 1998;p. 215–238
  47. Oosterlinck W , Lobel B , Jakse G , et al.   Guidelines on bladder cancer . Eur Urol . 2002;41(2):105–112
  48. Gschwend JE , Dahm P , Fair WR . Disease specific survival as endpoint of outcome for bladder cancer patients following radical cystectomy . Eur Urol . 2002;41(4):440–448
  49. Kantoff PW , Zeitman AL , Wishnow K . Bladder cancer . In:  Bast RC ,  Kufe DW ,  Pollock RE , et al. editor. Cancer Medicine . Hamilton, Ontario: BC, Decker Inc; 2000;p. 1543–1558
  50. Jewett H , Strong G . Infiltrating carcinoma of the bladder (relation of depth of penetration of the bladder wall to incidence of local extension in metastases) . J Urol . 1946;55:366–372
  51. Marshall VF . The relation of the preoperative estimate to the pathologic demonstration of the extent of vesical neoplasms . J Urol . 1952;68:714–723
  52. Whitmore WF . Assessment and management of deeply invasive and metastatic lesions . Cancer Res . 1977;37(8 Pt. 2):2756–2758
  53. Levy DA , Grossman HB . Staging and prognosis of T3b bladder cancer . Semin Urol Oncol . 1996;14(2):56–61
  54. Barentsz JO , Jager GJ , Witjes JA . MR imaging of the urinary bladder . Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am . 2000;8(4):853–867
  55. Vock P , Haertel M , Fuchs WA , et al.   Computed tomography in staging of carcinoma of the urinary bladder . Br J Urol . 1982;54(2):158–163
  56. Sager EM , Talle K , Fossa S , et al.   The role of CT in demonstrating perivesical tumor growth in the preoperative staging of carcinoma of the urinary bladder . Radiology . 1983;146(2):443–446
  57. Fisher MR , Hricak H , Crooks LE . Urinary bladder MR imaging. Part I. Normal and benign conditions . Radiology . 1985;157(2):467–470
  58. Fisher MR , Hricak H , Tanagho EA . Urinary bladder MR imaging. Part II. Neoplasm . Radiology . 1985;157(2):471–477
  59. Amendola MA , Glazer GM , Grossman HB , et al.   Staging of bladder carcinoma (MRI-CT-surgical correlation) . AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1986;146(6):1179–1183
  60. Rholl KS , Lee JK , Heiken JP , et al.   Primary bladder carcinoma (evaluation with MR imaging) . Radiology . 1987;163(1):117–121
  61. Buy JN , Moss AA , Guinet C , et al.   MR staging of bladder carcinoma (correlation with pathologic findings) . Radiology . 1988;169(3):695–700
  62. Koelbel G , Schmiedl U , Griebel J , et al.   MR imaging of urinary bladder neoplasms . J Comput Assist Tomogr . 1988;12(1):98–103
  63. Husband JE , Olliff JF , Williams MP , et al.   Bladder cancer (staging with CT and MR imaging) . Radiology . 1989;173(2):435–440
  64. Neuerburg JM , Bohndorf K , Sohn M , et al.   Urinary bladder neoplasms (evaluation with contrast-enhanced MR imaging) . Radiology . 1989;172(3):739–743
  65. Tavares NJ , Demas BE , Hricak H . MR imaging of bladder neoplasms (correlation with pathologic staging) . Urol Radiol . 1990;12(1):27–33
  66. Tachibana M , Baba S , Deguchi N , et al.   Efficacy of gadolinium-diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging for differentiation between superficial and muscle-invasive tumor of the bladder (a comparative study with computerized tomography and transurethral ultrasonography) . J Urol . 1991;145(6):1169–1173
  67. Tanimoto A , Yuasa Y , Imai Y , et al.   Bladder tumor staging (comparison of conventional and gadolinium-enhanced dynamic MR imaging and CT) . Radiology . 1992;185(3):741–747
  68. Doringer E . Computerized tomography of colonic diverticulitis . Crit Rev Diagn Imaging . 1992;33(5):421–435
  69. Kim B , Semelka RC , Ascher SM , et al.   Bladder tumor staging (comparison of contrast-enhanced CT, T1- and T2-weighted MR imaging, dynamic gadolinium-enhanced imaging, and late gadolinium-enhanced imaging) . Radiology . 1994;193(1):239–245
  70. Barentsz JO , Jager G , Mugler JP , et al.   Staging urinary bladder cancer (value of T1-weighted three-dimensional magnetization prepared-rapid gradient-echo and two-dimensional spin-echo sequences) . AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1995;164(1):109–115
  71. Barentsz JO , Jager GJ , van Vierzen PB , et al.   Staging urinary bladder cancer after transurethral biopsy (value of fast dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging) . Radiology . 1996;201(1):185–193
  72. Barentsz JO , Witjes JA , Ruijs JH . What is new in bladder cancer imaging . Urol Clin North Am . 1997;24(3):583–602
  73. MacVicar AD . Bladder cancer staging . BJU Int . 2000;86(suppl 1):111–122
  74. Caterino M , Finocchi V , Giunta S , et al.   Bladder cancer within a direct inguinal hernia (CT demonstration) . Abdom Imaging . 2001;26(6):664–666
  75. Koss JC , Arger PH , Coleman BG , et al.   CT staging of bladder carcinoma . AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1981;137(2):359–362
  76. Husband JE . Computer tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of bladder cancer . J Belge Radiol . 1995;78(6):350–355
  77. Jager GJ , Barentsz JO , Oosterhof GO , et al.   Pelvic adenopathy in prostatic and urinary bladder carcinoma (MR imaging with a three-dimensional TI-weighted magnetization-prepared-rapid gradient-echo sequence) . AJR Am J Roentgenol . 1996;167(6):1503–1507
  78. Fielding JR , Hoyte LX , Okon SA , et al.   Tumor detection by virtual cystoscopy with color mapping of bladder wall thickness . J Urol . 2002;167(2 Pt. 1):559–562
  79. McTavish JD , Jinzaki M , Zou KH , et al.   Multi-detector row CT urography (comparison of strategies for depicting the normal urinary collecting system) . Radiology . 2002;225(3):783–790
  80. Lammle M , Beer A , Settles M , et al.   Reliability of MR imaging-based virtual cystoscopy in the diagnosis of cancer of the urinary bladder . AJR Am J Roentgenol . 2002;178(6):1483–1488
  81. Herts BR . The current status of CT urography (2002) . Crit Rev Comput Tomogr . 2002;43(3):219–241
  82. Gray Sears CL , Ward JF , Sears ST , et al.   Prospective comparison of computerized tomography and excretory urography in the initial evaluation of asymptomatic microhematuria . J Urol . 2002;168(6):2457–2460
  83. Williams SG , Buscarini M , Stein JP . Molecular markers for diagnosis, staging, and prognosis of bladder cancer . Oncology (Williston Park) . 2001;15(11):1461–1470 1473-1474, 1476; discussion 1476-1484

PII: S0037-198X(06)00006-X

doi: 10.1053/j.ro.2006.02.005

Seminars in Roentgenology
Volume 41, Issue 2 , Pages 121-138 , April 2006